Hongyu Jiang, PhD

Hospital communication failures are a leading cause of serious errors and adverse events in the United States.[1, 2, 3, 4] With the implementation of duty‐hour restrictions for resident physicians,[5] there has been particular focus on the transfer of information during handoffs at change of shift.[6, 7] Many residency programs have sought to improve the processes of written and verbal handoffs through various initiatives, including: (1) automated linkage of handoff forms to electronic medical records (EMRs)[8, 9, 10]; (2) introduction of oral communication curricula, handoff simulation, or mnemonics[11, 12, 13]; and (3) faculty oversight of housestaff handoffs.[14, 15] Underlying each initiative has been the assumption that improving written and verbal handoff processes will ensure the availability of optimal patient information for on‐call housestaff. There has been little investigation, however, into what clinical questions are actually being asked of on‐call trainees, as well as what sources of information they are using to provide answers.

The aim of our study was to examine the extent to which written and verbal handoffs are utilized by pediatric trainees to derive answers to questions posed during overnight shifts. We also sought to describe both the frequency and types of on‐call questions being asked of trainees. Our primary outcome was trainee use of written handoffs to answer on‐call questions. Secondary outcomes included trainee use of verbal handoffs, as well as their use of alternative information resources to answer on‐call questions, including other clinical staff (ie, attending physicians, senior residents, nursing staff), patients and their families, the medical record, or the Internet. We then examined a variety of trainee, patient, and question characteristics to assess potential predictors of written and verbal handoff use.

METHODS

Institutional approval was granted to prospectively observe pediatric interns at the start of their overnight on‐call shifts on 2 inpatient wards at Boston Children's Hospital during 3 winter months (November through January). Our study was conducted during the postintervention period of a larger study that was designed to examine the effectiveness of a new resident handoff bundle on resident workflow and patient safety.[13] Interns rotating on study ward 1 used a structured, nonautomated tool (Microsoft Word version 2003; Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA). Interns on study ward 2 used a handoff tool that was developed at the study hospital for use with the hospital's EMR, Cerner PowerChart version 2007.17 (Cerner Corp., Kansas City, MO). Interns on both wards received training on specific communication strategies, including verbal and written handoff processes.[13]

For our study, we recorded all questions being asked of on‐call interns by patients, parents, or other family members, as well as nurses or other clinical providers after completion of their evening handoff. We then directly observed all information resources used to derive answers to any questions asked pertaining to patients discussed in the evening handoff. We excluded any questions about new patient admissions or transfers, as well as nonpatient‐related questions.

Both study wards were staffed by separate day and night housestaff teams, who worked shifts of 12 to 14 hours in duration and had similar nursing schedules. The day team consisted of 3 interns and 1 senior resident per ward. The night team consisted of 1 intern on each ward, supervised by a senior resident covering both wards. Each day intern rotated for 1 week (Sunday through Thursday) during their month‐long ward rotation as part of the night team. We considered any intern on either of the 2 study wards to be eligible for enrollment in this study. Written consent was obtained from all participants.

The night intern received a verbal and written handoff at the shift change (usually performed between 5 and 7_pm) from 1 of the departing day interns prior to the start of the observation period. This handoff was conducted face‐to‐face in a ward conference room typically with the on‐call night intern and supervising resident receiving the handoff together from the departing day intern/senior resident.

RESULTS

Twenty‐eight observation nights (equivalent to 77 hours and 6 minutes of total direct observation time), consisting of 13 sessions on study ward 1 and 15 sessions on study ward 2, were completed. A total of 15 first‐year pediatric interns (5 male, 33%; 10 female, 66.7%), with a median age of 27.5 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 2629 years) participated. Interns on the 2 study wards were comparable with regard to trainee week of service (P=0.43) and consecutive night of call at the time of observation (P=0.45). Each intern was observed for a mean of 2 sessions (range, 13 sessions), with a mean observation time per session of approximately 2 hours and 45 minutes ( 23 minutes).

Answers

Of the 260 recorded questions, 90% (233) had documented answers. For the 10% (27) of questions with undocumented answers, 21 were observed to be verbally deferred by the intern to the day team or another care provider (ie, other physician or nurse), and almost half (42.9% [9]) involved general care‐plan questions; the remainder involved medication (4), diet (2), diagnostic testing (5), or vital sign (1) questions. An additional 6 questions went unanswered during the observation period, and it is unknown if or when they were answered.

Of the answered questions, 90% (209) of answers were provided by trainees within 5 minutes and 9% (21) within 1.5 hours. In all, interns reported using 1 information resource to provide answers for 61% (142) of questions, at least 2 resources for 33% (76) questions, and 3 resources for 6% (15) questions.

Across both study wards, interns reported using information provided in written or verbal handoffs to answer 32.6% of questions. Interns reported using the written handoff, either alone or in combination with other information resources, to provide answers for 7.3% (17) of questions; verbal handoff, either alone or in combination with another resource (excluding written handoff), was reported as a resource for 25.3% (59) of questions. Of note, interns were directly observed to look at the written handoff when answering 21% (49) of questions.

A variety of other resources, including general medical/clinical knowledge, the EMR, and parents or other resources, were used to answer the remaining 67.4% (157) of questions. Intern general medical knowledge (ie, reports of simply knowing the answer to the question in their head[s]) was used to provide answers for 53.2% (124) of questions asked.

Unadjusted univariate regression analyses assessing predictors of written and verbal handoff use are shown in Figure 1. Multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that both dietary questions (odds ratio [OR]: 3.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.518.76; P=0.004) and interns' consecutive call night (OR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.090.93; P=0.04) remained significant predictors of written handoff use. After adjusting for risk factors identified above, no differences in written handoff use were seen between the 2 wards.

Figure 1

Multivariate logistic regression for predictors of the verbal handoff use showed that questions regarding patients with longer lengths of stay (OR: 1.97, 95% CI: 1.023.8; P=0.04), those regarding general care plans (OR: 2.07, 95% CI: 1.133.78; P=0.02), as well as those asked by clinical staff (OR: 1.95, 95 CI: 1.043.66; P=0.04), remained significant predictors of reported verbal handoff use.

DISCUSSION

In light of the recent changes in duty hours implemented in July 2011, many pediatric training programs are having trainees work in day and night shifts.[18] Pediatric resident physicians frequently answer questions that pertain to patients handed off between day and night shifts. We found that on average, information provided in the verbal and written handoff was used almost once per hour. Housestaff in our study generally based their answers on information found in 1 or 2 resources, with almost one‐third of all questions involving some use of the written or verbal handoff. Prior research has documented widespread problems with resident handoff practices across programs and a high rate of medical errors due to miscommunications.[3, 4, 19, 20] Given how often information contained within the handoff was used as interns went about their nightly tasks, it is not difficult to understand how errors or omissions in the handoff process may potentially translate into frequent problems in direct patient care.

Trainees reported using written handoff tools to provide answers for 7.3% of questions. As we had suspected, they relied less frequently on their written handoffs as they completed more consecutive call nights. Interestingly, however, even when housestaff did not report using the written handoff, they were observed quite often to look at it before providing an answer. One explanation for this discrepancy between trainee reports and our observations is that the written handoff may serve as a memory tool, even if housestaff do not directly attribute their answers to its content. Our study also found that answers to questions concerning patients' diet and fluids were more likely to be ascribed to information contained in the written handoff. This finding supports the potential value of automated written handoff tools that are linked to the EMR, which can best ensure accuracy of this type of information.

Housestaff in our study also reported using information received during the verbal handoff to answer 1 out of every 4 on‐call questions. Although we did not specifically rate or monitor the quality of verbal handoffs, prior research has demonstrated that resident verbal handoff is often plagued with incomplete and inaccurate data.[3, 4, 19, 21] One investigation found that pediatric interns were prone to overestimating the effectiveness of their verbal handoffs, even as they failed to convey urgent information to their peers.[19] In light of such prior work, our finding that interns frequently rely on the verbal transfer of information supports specific residency training program handoff initiatives that target verbal exchanges.[11, 22, 23]

Although information obtained in the handoff was frequently required by on‐call housestaff, our study found that two‐thirds of all questions were answered using other resources, most often general medical or clinical knowledge. Clearly, background knowledge and experience is fundamental to trainees' ability to perform their jobs. Such reliance on general knowledge for problem solving may not be unique to interns. One recent observational study of senior pediatric cardiac subspecialists reported a high frequency of reliance on their own clinical experience, instinct, or prior training in making clinical decisions.[24] Further investigation may be useful to parse out the exact types of clinical knowledge being used, and may have important implications for how training programs plan for overnight supervision.[25, 26, 27]

Our study has several limitations. First, it was beyond the scope of this study to link housestaff answers to patient outcomes or medical errors. Given the frequency with which the handoff, a known source of vulnerability to medical error, was used by on‐call housestaff, our study suggests that future research evaluating the relationship between questions asked of on‐call housestaff, the answers provided, and downstream patient safety incidents may be merited. Second, our study was conducted in a single pediatric residency program with 1 physician observer midway through the first year of training and only in the early evening hours. This limits the generalizability of our findings, as the use of handoffs to answer on‐call questions may be different at other stages of the training process, within other specialties, or even at different times of the day. We also began our observations after the handoff had taken place; future studies may want to assess how variations in written and verbal handoff processes affect their use. As a final limitation, we note that although collecting information in real time using a direct observational method eliminated the problem of recall bias, there may have been attribution bias.

The results of our study demonstrate that on‐call pediatric housestaff are frequently asked a variety of clinical questions posed by hospital staff, patients, and their families. We found that trainees are apt to rely both on handoff information and other resources to provide answers. By better understanding what resources on‐call housestaff are accessing to answer questions overnight, we may be able to better target interventions needed to improve the availability of patient information, as well as the usefulness of written and verbal handoff tools.[11, 22, 23]

Hospital communication failures are a leading cause of serious errors and adverse events in the United States.[1, 2, 3, 4] With the implementation of duty‐hour restrictions for resident physicians,[5] there has been particular focus on the transfer of information during handoffs at change of shift.[6, 7] Many residency programs have sought to improve the processes of written and verbal handoffs through various initiatives, including: (1) automated linkage of handoff forms to electronic medical records (EMRs)[8, 9, 10]; (2) introduction of oral communication curricula, handoff simulation, or mnemonics[11, 12, 13]; and (3) faculty oversight of housestaff handoffs.[14, 15] Underlying each initiative has been the assumption that improving written and verbal handoff processes will ensure the availability of optimal patient information for on‐call housestaff. There has been little investigation, however, into what clinical questions are actually being asked of on‐call trainees, as well as what sources of information they are using to provide answers.

The aim of our study was to examine the extent to which written and verbal handoffs are utilized by pediatric trainees to derive answers to questions posed during overnight shifts. We also sought to describe both the frequency and types of on‐call questions being asked of trainees. Our primary outcome was trainee use of written handoffs to answer on‐call questions. Secondary outcomes included trainee use of verbal handoffs, as well as their use of alternative information resources to answer on‐call questions, including other clinical staff (ie, attending physicians, senior residents, nursing staff), patients and their families, the medical record, or the Internet. We then examined a variety of trainee, patient, and question characteristics to assess potential predictors of written and verbal handoff use.

METHODS

Institutional approval was granted to prospectively observe pediatric interns at the start of their overnight on‐call shifts on 2 inpatient wards at Boston Children's Hospital during 3 winter months (November through January). Our study was conducted during the postintervention period of a larger study that was designed to examine the effectiveness of a new resident handoff bundle on resident workflow and patient safety.[13] Interns rotating on study ward 1 used a structured, nonautomated tool (Microsoft Word version 2003; Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA). Interns on study ward 2 used a handoff tool that was developed at the study hospital for use with the hospital's EMR, Cerner PowerChart version 2007.17 (Cerner Corp., Kansas City, MO). Interns on both wards received training on specific communication strategies, including verbal and written handoff processes.[13]

For our study, we recorded all questions being asked of on‐call interns by patients, parents, or other family members, as well as nurses or other clinical providers after completion of their evening handoff. We then directly observed all information resources used to derive answers to any questions asked pertaining to patients discussed in the evening handoff. We excluded any questions about new patient admissions or transfers, as well as nonpatient‐related questions.

Both study wards were staffed by separate day and night housestaff teams, who worked shifts of 12 to 14 hours in duration and had similar nursing schedules. The day team consisted of 3 interns and 1 senior resident per ward. The night team consisted of 1 intern on each ward, supervised by a senior resident covering both wards. Each day intern rotated for 1 week (Sunday through Thursday) during their month‐long ward rotation as part of the night team. We considered any intern on either of the 2 study wards to be eligible for enrollment in this study. Written consent was obtained from all participants.

The night intern received a verbal and written handoff at the shift change (usually performed between 5 and 7_pm) from 1 of the departing day interns prior to the start of the observation period. This handoff was conducted face‐to‐face in a ward conference room typically with the on‐call night intern and supervising resident receiving the handoff together from the departing day intern/senior resident.

RESULTS

Twenty‐eight observation nights (equivalent to 77 hours and 6 minutes of total direct observation time), consisting of 13 sessions on study ward 1 and 15 sessions on study ward 2, were completed. A total of 15 first‐year pediatric interns (5 male, 33%; 10 female, 66.7%), with a median age of 27.5 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 2629 years) participated. Interns on the 2 study wards were comparable with regard to trainee week of service (P=0.43) and consecutive night of call at the time of observation (P=0.45). Each intern was observed for a mean of 2 sessions (range, 13 sessions), with a mean observation time per session of approximately 2 hours and 45 minutes ( 23 minutes).

Answers

Of the 260 recorded questions, 90% (233) had documented answers. For the 10% (27) of questions with undocumented answers, 21 were observed to be verbally deferred by the intern to the day team or another care provider (ie, other physician or nurse), and almost half (42.9% [9]) involved general care‐plan questions; the remainder involved medication (4), diet (2), diagnostic testing (5), or vital sign (1) questions. An additional 6 questions went unanswered during the observation period, and it is unknown if or when they were answered.

Of the answered questions, 90% (209) of answers were provided by trainees within 5 minutes and 9% (21) within 1.5 hours. In all, interns reported using 1 information resource to provide answers for 61% (142) of questions, at least 2 resources for 33% (76) questions, and 3 resources for 6% (15) questions.

Across both study wards, interns reported using information provided in written or verbal handoffs to answer 32.6% of questions. Interns reported using the written handoff, either alone or in combination with other information resources, to provide answers for 7.3% (17) of questions; verbal handoff, either alone or in combination with another resource (excluding written handoff), was reported as a resource for 25.3% (59) of questions. Of note, interns were directly observed to look at the written handoff when answering 21% (49) of questions.

A variety of other resources, including general medical/clinical knowledge, the EMR, and parents or other resources, were used to answer the remaining 67.4% (157) of questions. Intern general medical knowledge (ie, reports of simply knowing the answer to the question in their head[s]) was used to provide answers for 53.2% (124) of questions asked.

Unadjusted univariate regression analyses assessing predictors of written and verbal handoff use are shown in Figure 1. Multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that both dietary questions (odds ratio [OR]: 3.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.518.76; P=0.004) and interns' consecutive call night (OR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.090.93; P=0.04) remained significant predictors of written handoff use. After adjusting for risk factors identified above, no differences in written handoff use were seen between the 2 wards.

Figure 1

Multivariate logistic regression for predictors of the verbal handoff use showed that questions regarding patients with longer lengths of stay (OR: 1.97, 95% CI: 1.023.8; P=0.04), those regarding general care plans (OR: 2.07, 95% CI: 1.133.78; P=0.02), as well as those asked by clinical staff (OR: 1.95, 95 CI: 1.043.66; P=0.04), remained significant predictors of reported verbal handoff use.

DISCUSSION

In light of the recent changes in duty hours implemented in July 2011, many pediatric training programs are having trainees work in day and night shifts.[18] Pediatric resident physicians frequently answer questions that pertain to patients handed off between day and night shifts. We found that on average, information provided in the verbal and written handoff was used almost once per hour. Housestaff in our study generally based their answers on information found in 1 or 2 resources, with almost one‐third of all questions involving some use of the written or verbal handoff. Prior research has documented widespread problems with resident handoff practices across programs and a high rate of medical errors due to miscommunications.[3, 4, 19, 20] Given how often information contained within the handoff was used as interns went about their nightly tasks, it is not difficult to understand how errors or omissions in the handoff process may potentially translate into frequent problems in direct patient care.

Trainees reported using written handoff tools to provide answers for 7.3% of questions. As we had suspected, they relied less frequently on their written handoffs as they completed more consecutive call nights. Interestingly, however, even when housestaff did not report using the written handoff, they were observed quite often to look at it before providing an answer. One explanation for this discrepancy between trainee reports and our observations is that the written handoff may serve as a memory tool, even if housestaff do not directly attribute their answers to its content. Our study also found that answers to questions concerning patients' diet and fluids were more likely to be ascribed to information contained in the written handoff. This finding supports the potential value of automated written handoff tools that are linked to the EMR, which can best ensure accuracy of this type of information.

Housestaff in our study also reported using information received during the verbal handoff to answer 1 out of every 4 on‐call questions. Although we did not specifically rate or monitor the quality of verbal handoffs, prior research has demonstrated that resident verbal handoff is often plagued with incomplete and inaccurate data.[3, 4, 19, 21] One investigation found that pediatric interns were prone to overestimating the effectiveness of their verbal handoffs, even as they failed to convey urgent information to their peers.[19] In light of such prior work, our finding that interns frequently rely on the verbal transfer of information supports specific residency training program handoff initiatives that target verbal exchanges.[11, 22, 23]

Although information obtained in the handoff was frequently required by on‐call housestaff, our study found that two‐thirds of all questions were answered using other resources, most often general medical or clinical knowledge. Clearly, background knowledge and experience is fundamental to trainees' ability to perform their jobs. Such reliance on general knowledge for problem solving may not be unique to interns. One recent observational study of senior pediatric cardiac subspecialists reported a high frequency of reliance on their own clinical experience, instinct, or prior training in making clinical decisions.[24] Further investigation may be useful to parse out the exact types of clinical knowledge being used, and may have important implications for how training programs plan for overnight supervision.[25, 26, 27]

Our study has several limitations. First, it was beyond the scope of this study to link housestaff answers to patient outcomes or medical errors. Given the frequency with which the handoff, a known source of vulnerability to medical error, was used by on‐call housestaff, our study suggests that future research evaluating the relationship between questions asked of on‐call housestaff, the answers provided, and downstream patient safety incidents may be merited. Second, our study was conducted in a single pediatric residency program with 1 physician observer midway through the first year of training and only in the early evening hours. This limits the generalizability of our findings, as the use of handoffs to answer on‐call questions may be different at other stages of the training process, within other specialties, or even at different times of the day. We also began our observations after the handoff had taken place; future studies may want to assess how variations in written and verbal handoff processes affect their use. As a final limitation, we note that although collecting information in real time using a direct observational method eliminated the problem of recall bias, there may have been attribution bias.

The results of our study demonstrate that on‐call pediatric housestaff are frequently asked a variety of clinical questions posed by hospital staff, patients, and their families. We found that trainees are apt to rely both on handoff information and other resources to provide answers. By better understanding what resources on‐call housestaff are accessing to answer questions overnight, we may be able to better target interventions needed to improve the availability of patient information, as well as the usefulness of written and verbal handoff tools.[11, 22, 23]

Hospital communication failures are a leading cause of serious errors and adverse events in the United States.[1, 2, 3, 4] With the implementation of duty‐hour restrictions for resident physicians,[5] there has been particular focus on the transfer of information during handoffs at change of shift.[6, 7] Many residency programs have sought to improve the processes of written and verbal handoffs through various initiatives, including: (1) automated linkage of handoff forms to electronic medical records (EMRs)[8, 9, 10]; (2) introduction of oral communication curricula, handoff simulation, or mnemonics[11, 12, 13]; and (3) faculty oversight of housestaff handoffs.[14, 15] Underlying each initiative has been the assumption that improving written and verbal handoff processes will ensure the availability of optimal patient information for on‐call housestaff. There has been little investigation, however, into what clinical questions are actually being asked of on‐call trainees, as well as what sources of information they are using to provide answers.

The aim of our study was to examine the extent to which written and verbal handoffs are utilized by pediatric trainees to derive answers to questions posed during overnight shifts. We also sought to describe both the frequency and types of on‐call questions being asked of trainees. Our primary outcome was trainee use of written handoffs to answer on‐call questions. Secondary outcomes included trainee use of verbal handoffs, as well as their use of alternative information resources to answer on‐call questions, including other clinical staff (ie, attending physicians, senior residents, nursing staff), patients and their families, the medical record, or the Internet. We then examined a variety of trainee, patient, and question characteristics to assess potential predictors of written and verbal handoff use.

METHODS

Institutional approval was granted to prospectively observe pediatric interns at the start of their overnight on‐call shifts on 2 inpatient wards at Boston Children's Hospital during 3 winter months (November through January). Our study was conducted during the postintervention period of a larger study that was designed to examine the effectiveness of a new resident handoff bundle on resident workflow and patient safety.[13] Interns rotating on study ward 1 used a structured, nonautomated tool (Microsoft Word version 2003; Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA). Interns on study ward 2 used a handoff tool that was developed at the study hospital for use with the hospital's EMR, Cerner PowerChart version 2007.17 (Cerner Corp., Kansas City, MO). Interns on both wards received training on specific communication strategies, including verbal and written handoff processes.[13]

For our study, we recorded all questions being asked of on‐call interns by patients, parents, or other family members, as well as nurses or other clinical providers after completion of their evening handoff. We then directly observed all information resources used to derive answers to any questions asked pertaining to patients discussed in the evening handoff. We excluded any questions about new patient admissions or transfers, as well as nonpatient‐related questions.

Both study wards were staffed by separate day and night housestaff teams, who worked shifts of 12 to 14 hours in duration and had similar nursing schedules. The day team consisted of 3 interns and 1 senior resident per ward. The night team consisted of 1 intern on each ward, supervised by a senior resident covering both wards. Each day intern rotated for 1 week (Sunday through Thursday) during their month‐long ward rotation as part of the night team. We considered any intern on either of the 2 study wards to be eligible for enrollment in this study. Written consent was obtained from all participants.

The night intern received a verbal and written handoff at the shift change (usually performed between 5 and 7_pm) from 1 of the departing day interns prior to the start of the observation period. This handoff was conducted face‐to‐face in a ward conference room typically with the on‐call night intern and supervising resident receiving the handoff together from the departing day intern/senior resident.

RESULTS

Twenty‐eight observation nights (equivalent to 77 hours and 6 minutes of total direct observation time), consisting of 13 sessions on study ward 1 and 15 sessions on study ward 2, were completed. A total of 15 first‐year pediatric interns (5 male, 33%; 10 female, 66.7%), with a median age of 27.5 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 2629 years) participated. Interns on the 2 study wards were comparable with regard to trainee week of service (P=0.43) and consecutive night of call at the time of observation (P=0.45). Each intern was observed for a mean of 2 sessions (range, 13 sessions), with a mean observation time per session of approximately 2 hours and 45 minutes ( 23 minutes).

Answers

Of the 260 recorded questions, 90% (233) had documented answers. For the 10% (27) of questions with undocumented answers, 21 were observed to be verbally deferred by the intern to the day team or another care provider (ie, other physician or nurse), and almost half (42.9% [9]) involved general care‐plan questions; the remainder involved medication (4), diet (2), diagnostic testing (5), or vital sign (1) questions. An additional 6 questions went unanswered during the observation period, and it is unknown if or when they were answered.

Of the answered questions, 90% (209) of answers were provided by trainees within 5 minutes and 9% (21) within 1.5 hours. In all, interns reported using 1 information resource to provide answers for 61% (142) of questions, at least 2 resources for 33% (76) questions, and 3 resources for 6% (15) questions.

Across both study wards, interns reported using information provided in written or verbal handoffs to answer 32.6% of questions. Interns reported using the written handoff, either alone or in combination with other information resources, to provide answers for 7.3% (17) of questions; verbal handoff, either alone or in combination with another resource (excluding written handoff), was reported as a resource for 25.3% (59) of questions. Of note, interns were directly observed to look at the written handoff when answering 21% (49) of questions.

A variety of other resources, including general medical/clinical knowledge, the EMR, and parents or other resources, were used to answer the remaining 67.4% (157) of questions. Intern general medical knowledge (ie, reports of simply knowing the answer to the question in their head[s]) was used to provide answers for 53.2% (124) of questions asked.

Unadjusted univariate regression analyses assessing predictors of written and verbal handoff use are shown in Figure 1. Multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that both dietary questions (odds ratio [OR]: 3.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.518.76; P=0.004) and interns' consecutive call night (OR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.090.93; P=0.04) remained significant predictors of written handoff use. After adjusting for risk factors identified above, no differences in written handoff use were seen between the 2 wards.

Figure 1

Multivariate logistic regression for predictors of the verbal handoff use showed that questions regarding patients with longer lengths of stay (OR: 1.97, 95% CI: 1.023.8; P=0.04), those regarding general care plans (OR: 2.07, 95% CI: 1.133.78; P=0.02), as well as those asked by clinical staff (OR: 1.95, 95 CI: 1.043.66; P=0.04), remained significant predictors of reported verbal handoff use.

DISCUSSION

In light of the recent changes in duty hours implemented in July 2011, many pediatric training programs are having trainees work in day and night shifts.[18] Pediatric resident physicians frequently answer questions that pertain to patients handed off between day and night shifts. We found that on average, information provided in the verbal and written handoff was used almost once per hour. Housestaff in our study generally based their answers on information found in 1 or 2 resources, with almost one‐third of all questions involving some use of the written or verbal handoff. Prior research has documented widespread problems with resident handoff practices across programs and a high rate of medical errors due to miscommunications.[3, 4, 19, 20] Given how often information contained within the handoff was used as interns went about their nightly tasks, it is not difficult to understand how errors or omissions in the handoff process may potentially translate into frequent problems in direct patient care.

Trainees reported using written handoff tools to provide answers for 7.3% of questions. As we had suspected, they relied less frequently on their written handoffs as they completed more consecutive call nights. Interestingly, however, even when housestaff did not report using the written handoff, they were observed quite often to look at it before providing an answer. One explanation for this discrepancy between trainee reports and our observations is that the written handoff may serve as a memory tool, even if housestaff do not directly attribute their answers to its content. Our study also found that answers to questions concerning patients' diet and fluids were more likely to be ascribed to information contained in the written handoff. This finding supports the potential value of automated written handoff tools that are linked to the EMR, which can best ensure accuracy of this type of information.

Housestaff in our study also reported using information received during the verbal handoff to answer 1 out of every 4 on‐call questions. Although we did not specifically rate or monitor the quality of verbal handoffs, prior research has demonstrated that resident verbal handoff is often plagued with incomplete and inaccurate data.[3, 4, 19, 21] One investigation found that pediatric interns were prone to overestimating the effectiveness of their verbal handoffs, even as they failed to convey urgent information to their peers.[19] In light of such prior work, our finding that interns frequently rely on the verbal transfer of information supports specific residency training program handoff initiatives that target verbal exchanges.[11, 22, 23]

Although information obtained in the handoff was frequently required by on‐call housestaff, our study found that two‐thirds of all questions were answered using other resources, most often general medical or clinical knowledge. Clearly, background knowledge and experience is fundamental to trainees' ability to perform their jobs. Such reliance on general knowledge for problem solving may not be unique to interns. One recent observational study of senior pediatric cardiac subspecialists reported a high frequency of reliance on their own clinical experience, instinct, or prior training in making clinical decisions.[24] Further investigation may be useful to parse out the exact types of clinical knowledge being used, and may have important implications for how training programs plan for overnight supervision.[25, 26, 27]

Our study has several limitations. First, it was beyond the scope of this study to link housestaff answers to patient outcomes or medical errors. Given the frequency with which the handoff, a known source of vulnerability to medical error, was used by on‐call housestaff, our study suggests that future research evaluating the relationship between questions asked of on‐call housestaff, the answers provided, and downstream patient safety incidents may be merited. Second, our study was conducted in a single pediatric residency program with 1 physician observer midway through the first year of training and only in the early evening hours. This limits the generalizability of our findings, as the use of handoffs to answer on‐call questions may be different at other stages of the training process, within other specialties, or even at different times of the day. We also began our observations after the handoff had taken place; future studies may want to assess how variations in written and verbal handoff processes affect their use. As a final limitation, we note that although collecting information in real time using a direct observational method eliminated the problem of recall bias, there may have been attribution bias.

The results of our study demonstrate that on‐call pediatric housestaff are frequently asked a variety of clinical questions posed by hospital staff, patients, and their families. We found that trainees are apt to rely both on handoff information and other resources to provide answers. By better understanding what resources on‐call housestaff are accessing to answer questions overnight, we may be able to better target interventions needed to improve the availability of patient information, as well as the usefulness of written and verbal handoff tools.[11, 22, 23]