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Atopic Dermatitis: New Insights and Expanded Treatment Options
Atopic Dermatitis: New Insights and Expanded Treatment Options
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic skin condition generally characterized by pruritic and erythematous papules and plaques.1 While AD commonly manifests in childhood, 1 in 4 patients living with AD report adult onset of the disease.2 The clinical presentation and prevalence of AD vary across age groups, skin tones, and racial and ethnic groups. Globally, AD is estimated to have a prevalence of 2.6%; however, rates vary widely by region.1 Morphology and distribution of AD lesions also vary by population; therefore, defining one classic presentation of AD is not sufficient in diverse patient populations.3
Epidemiology
The prevalence of AD ranges from 0.2% to 24.6% worldwide, with higher rates in Africa and Oceania and lower rates in India and Northern and Eastern Europe.1 In the United States, AD affects all racial and ethnic groups; however, prevalence and severity are increased in Black children compared with White children.4 In one prospective cohort study, Hispanic children and non-Hispanic Black children aged 3 years and younger had greater odds of AD persisting into mid childhood (approximately age 7 years) compared with non-Hispanic White children.5,6
Key Clinical Features
Clinical features of AD are heterogeneous and may include differences in color, morphology, and distribution. Brown, hyperpigmented, gray, and/or violaceous plaques may predominate in patients with skin of color (SOC) compared with the erythematous plaques commonly described in lighter skin tones.1,3 Established scoring systems for AD rely on erythema as a key diagnostic feature, but because erythema can be difficult to detect in darker skin tones, disease severity may be underestimated and diagnosis may be delayed in this population.4
Atopic dermatitis in SOC may manifest as lichenoid plaques,7 prurigo nodules,7,8 lichenification,1 and follicular accentuation.9 Lichen planus–like AD is a distinct variant characterized by lichenoid plaques with a predilection for the extensor surfaces and face in patients with darker skin tones1,8 occurring in approximately 9% of patients in one study.10
Other key clinical features of AD in patients with SOC include pityriasis alba,10 increased risk for postinflammatory pigment alteration (including hyperpigmentation and/or hypopigmentation),1 and greater trunk and extensor involvement.1,11
Worth Noting
The scientific landscape for AD has grown rapidly, increasing our understanding of its pathophysiology, treatment, and social impact. Nonsteroidal treatments available for pediatric and adult patients with AD have increased in recent years, including crisaborole (approved for use in those ages ≥3 months), tacrolimus (≥2 years), and pimecrolimus (≥2 years). Injectable options include dupilumab (≥6 months), lebrikizumab (≥12 years), nemolizumab (≥12 years), and tralokinumab (≥12 years). Oral options include abrocitinib (≥12 years) and upadacitinib (≥12 years).12 Topical options include roflumilast 0.15% cream (≥6 years)12 and 0.05% cream (≥2-5 years),13 ruxolitinib 1.5% cream (≥2 years),14 and tapinarof 1% cream (≥2 years).12
For some patients, postinflammatory pigment alteration associated with AD has a higher impact on quality of life than the AD itself.7 In a study of 260 US adults with AD, the emotional impact of pigmentary changes was greatest in Black patients, with 53.3% reporting that pigment changes bothered them “a lot” or “very much.”15
Genome-wide association studies have not identified a single determinant that explains racial and ethnic differences in susceptibility to AD.4 Instead, social determinants of health are thought to play a role in the difference in AD prevalence and severity across groups in the United States.16
Health Disparity Highlight
In an analysis of 20 US metropolitan cities, urban and inner-city residence was associated with approximately 1.7-fold increased odds of AD.4 Among pediatric patients with moderate to severe AD, Black children were more likely to be exposed to tobacco smoke17 and traffic-related air pollution.18 Low socioeconomic status and low income also have been associated with moderate16 and severe19 AD. At the same education level, Black individuals in the United States receive less income than their White counterparts and have markedly less wealth at equivalent incomes.20
In utero exposure to maternal stress is associated with AD.4 Increased IgE levels have been recorded in children who develop AD, with Black children having the highest IgE levels overall compared to other children.18
An analysis of medical records from an urban medical center in Baltimore, Maryland, from 2013 through 2018 showed that Black patients with AD were less likely to receive topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, a topical phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor, and a biologic compared to White patients with AD.21
Since the disproportionate burden experienced by patients with AD is not physiologic, it is imperative to address these systemic complexities and address the barriers impacting treatment availability to improve health outcomes for all patients living with AD.
- Kaufman BP, Guttman-Yassky E, Alexis AF. Atopic dermatitis in diverse racial and ethnic groups—variations in epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation and treatment. Exp Dermatol. 2018;27:340-357.
- Lee HH, Patel KR, Singam V, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and phenotype of adult-onset atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019;80:1526-1532.E7.
- Adawi W, Cornman H, Kambala A, et al. Diagnosing atopic dermatitis in skin of color. Dermatol Clin. 2023;41:417-429.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. Current updates in the epidemiology and comorbidities of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:511-520.
- Croce EA, Levy ML, Adamson AS, et al. Reframing racial and ethnic disparities in atopic dermatitis in Black and Latinx populations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1104-1111.
- Kim Y, Blomberg M, Rifas-Shiman SL, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in incidence and persistence of childhood atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2019;139:827-834.
- Nomura T, Wu J, Kabashima K, et al. Endophenotypic variations of atopic dermatitis by age, race, and ethnicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;8:1840-1852.
- McColl M, Boozalis E, Aguh C, et al. Pruritus in Black skin: unique molecular characteristics and clinical features. J Natl Med Assoc. 2021;114:30-38.
- Silverberg JI, Margolis DJ, Boguniewicz M, et al. Distribution of atopic dermatitis lesions in United States adults. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33:1341-1348.
- Summey BT, Bowen SE, Allen HB. Lichen planus-like atopic dermatitis: expanding the differential diagnosis of spongiotic dermatitis. J Cutan Pathol. 2008;35:311-314.
- Odhiambo JA, Williams HC, Clayton TO, et al; ISAAC Phase Three Study Group. Global variations in prevalence of eczema symptoms in children from ISAAC Phase Three. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:1251-1258.E23.
- Gallagher K, Halperin-Goldstein S, Paller AS. New treatments in atopic dermatitis update. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:498-510.E10.
- Shaw ML. FDA expands roflumilast use for atopic dermatitis to children aged 2 to 5 years. Am J Managed Care. October 6, 2025. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.ajmc.com/view/fda-expands -roflumilast-use-for-atopic-dermatitis-to-children-aged-2-to-5-years
- Eichenfield LF, Stein Gold LF, Simpson EL, et al. Efficacy and safety of ruxolitinib cream in children aged 2 to 11 years with atopic dermatitis: results from TRuE-AD3, a phase 3, randomized double-blind study. J Am Acad of Dermatol. 2025;93:689-698.
- Heath CR, Dosono B, Shi VY, et al. Variability in skin tone changes by race and ethnicity among US adults with atopic dermatitis. Presented at: Skin of Color Update 2024, September 13-15, 2024, New York, NY.
- Tackett KJ, Jenkins F, Morrell DS, et al. Structural racism and its influence on the severity of atopic dermatitis in African American children. Pediatr Dermatol. 2020;37:142-146.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. The role of environmental exposures in atopic dermatitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020;20:74.
- Bauer SJ, Spoer BR, Ehrman R, et al. A systematic review of historic neighborhood redlining and contemporary health outcomes. Public Health. 2025;238:181-187.
- Chung J, Simpson EL. The socioeconomics of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2019;122:360-366.
- Martinez A, de la Rosa R, Mujahid M, et al. Structural racism and its pathways to asthma and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1112-1120.
- Bell MA, Whang KA, Thomas J, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in access to emerging and frontline therapies in common dermatological conditions: a cross-sectional study. J Natl Med Assoc. 2020;112:650-653.
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic skin condition generally characterized by pruritic and erythematous papules and plaques.1 While AD commonly manifests in childhood, 1 in 4 patients living with AD report adult onset of the disease.2 The clinical presentation and prevalence of AD vary across age groups, skin tones, and racial and ethnic groups. Globally, AD is estimated to have a prevalence of 2.6%; however, rates vary widely by region.1 Morphology and distribution of AD lesions also vary by population; therefore, defining one classic presentation of AD is not sufficient in diverse patient populations.3
Epidemiology
The prevalence of AD ranges from 0.2% to 24.6% worldwide, with higher rates in Africa and Oceania and lower rates in India and Northern and Eastern Europe.1 In the United States, AD affects all racial and ethnic groups; however, prevalence and severity are increased in Black children compared with White children.4 In one prospective cohort study, Hispanic children and non-Hispanic Black children aged 3 years and younger had greater odds of AD persisting into mid childhood (approximately age 7 years) compared with non-Hispanic White children.5,6
Key Clinical Features
Clinical features of AD are heterogeneous and may include differences in color, morphology, and distribution. Brown, hyperpigmented, gray, and/or violaceous plaques may predominate in patients with skin of color (SOC) compared with the erythematous plaques commonly described in lighter skin tones.1,3 Established scoring systems for AD rely on erythema as a key diagnostic feature, but because erythema can be difficult to detect in darker skin tones, disease severity may be underestimated and diagnosis may be delayed in this population.4
Atopic dermatitis in SOC may manifest as lichenoid plaques,7 prurigo nodules,7,8 lichenification,1 and follicular accentuation.9 Lichen planus–like AD is a distinct variant characterized by lichenoid plaques with a predilection for the extensor surfaces and face in patients with darker skin tones1,8 occurring in approximately 9% of patients in one study.10
Other key clinical features of AD in patients with SOC include pityriasis alba,10 increased risk for postinflammatory pigment alteration (including hyperpigmentation and/or hypopigmentation),1 and greater trunk and extensor involvement.1,11
Worth Noting
The scientific landscape for AD has grown rapidly, increasing our understanding of its pathophysiology, treatment, and social impact. Nonsteroidal treatments available for pediatric and adult patients with AD have increased in recent years, including crisaborole (approved for use in those ages ≥3 months), tacrolimus (≥2 years), and pimecrolimus (≥2 years). Injectable options include dupilumab (≥6 months), lebrikizumab (≥12 years), nemolizumab (≥12 years), and tralokinumab (≥12 years). Oral options include abrocitinib (≥12 years) and upadacitinib (≥12 years).12 Topical options include roflumilast 0.15% cream (≥6 years)12 and 0.05% cream (≥2-5 years),13 ruxolitinib 1.5% cream (≥2 years),14 and tapinarof 1% cream (≥2 years).12
For some patients, postinflammatory pigment alteration associated with AD has a higher impact on quality of life than the AD itself.7 In a study of 260 US adults with AD, the emotional impact of pigmentary changes was greatest in Black patients, with 53.3% reporting that pigment changes bothered them “a lot” or “very much.”15
Genome-wide association studies have not identified a single determinant that explains racial and ethnic differences in susceptibility to AD.4 Instead, social determinants of health are thought to play a role in the difference in AD prevalence and severity across groups in the United States.16
Health Disparity Highlight
In an analysis of 20 US metropolitan cities, urban and inner-city residence was associated with approximately 1.7-fold increased odds of AD.4 Among pediatric patients with moderate to severe AD, Black children were more likely to be exposed to tobacco smoke17 and traffic-related air pollution.18 Low socioeconomic status and low income also have been associated with moderate16 and severe19 AD. At the same education level, Black individuals in the United States receive less income than their White counterparts and have markedly less wealth at equivalent incomes.20
In utero exposure to maternal stress is associated with AD.4 Increased IgE levels have been recorded in children who develop AD, with Black children having the highest IgE levels overall compared to other children.18
An analysis of medical records from an urban medical center in Baltimore, Maryland, from 2013 through 2018 showed that Black patients with AD were less likely to receive topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, a topical phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor, and a biologic compared to White patients with AD.21
Since the disproportionate burden experienced by patients with AD is not physiologic, it is imperative to address these systemic complexities and address the barriers impacting treatment availability to improve health outcomes for all patients living with AD.
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic skin condition generally characterized by pruritic and erythematous papules and plaques.1 While AD commonly manifests in childhood, 1 in 4 patients living with AD report adult onset of the disease.2 The clinical presentation and prevalence of AD vary across age groups, skin tones, and racial and ethnic groups. Globally, AD is estimated to have a prevalence of 2.6%; however, rates vary widely by region.1 Morphology and distribution of AD lesions also vary by population; therefore, defining one classic presentation of AD is not sufficient in diverse patient populations.3
Epidemiology
The prevalence of AD ranges from 0.2% to 24.6% worldwide, with higher rates in Africa and Oceania and lower rates in India and Northern and Eastern Europe.1 In the United States, AD affects all racial and ethnic groups; however, prevalence and severity are increased in Black children compared with White children.4 In one prospective cohort study, Hispanic children and non-Hispanic Black children aged 3 years and younger had greater odds of AD persisting into mid childhood (approximately age 7 years) compared with non-Hispanic White children.5,6
Key Clinical Features
Clinical features of AD are heterogeneous and may include differences in color, morphology, and distribution. Brown, hyperpigmented, gray, and/or violaceous plaques may predominate in patients with skin of color (SOC) compared with the erythematous plaques commonly described in lighter skin tones.1,3 Established scoring systems for AD rely on erythema as a key diagnostic feature, but because erythema can be difficult to detect in darker skin tones, disease severity may be underestimated and diagnosis may be delayed in this population.4
Atopic dermatitis in SOC may manifest as lichenoid plaques,7 prurigo nodules,7,8 lichenification,1 and follicular accentuation.9 Lichen planus–like AD is a distinct variant characterized by lichenoid plaques with a predilection for the extensor surfaces and face in patients with darker skin tones1,8 occurring in approximately 9% of patients in one study.10
Other key clinical features of AD in patients with SOC include pityriasis alba,10 increased risk for postinflammatory pigment alteration (including hyperpigmentation and/or hypopigmentation),1 and greater trunk and extensor involvement.1,11
Worth Noting
The scientific landscape for AD has grown rapidly, increasing our understanding of its pathophysiology, treatment, and social impact. Nonsteroidal treatments available for pediatric and adult patients with AD have increased in recent years, including crisaborole (approved for use in those ages ≥3 months), tacrolimus (≥2 years), and pimecrolimus (≥2 years). Injectable options include dupilumab (≥6 months), lebrikizumab (≥12 years), nemolizumab (≥12 years), and tralokinumab (≥12 years). Oral options include abrocitinib (≥12 years) and upadacitinib (≥12 years).12 Topical options include roflumilast 0.15% cream (≥6 years)12 and 0.05% cream (≥2-5 years),13 ruxolitinib 1.5% cream (≥2 years),14 and tapinarof 1% cream (≥2 years).12
For some patients, postinflammatory pigment alteration associated with AD has a higher impact on quality of life than the AD itself.7 In a study of 260 US adults with AD, the emotional impact of pigmentary changes was greatest in Black patients, with 53.3% reporting that pigment changes bothered them “a lot” or “very much.”15
Genome-wide association studies have not identified a single determinant that explains racial and ethnic differences in susceptibility to AD.4 Instead, social determinants of health are thought to play a role in the difference in AD prevalence and severity across groups in the United States.16
Health Disparity Highlight
In an analysis of 20 US metropolitan cities, urban and inner-city residence was associated with approximately 1.7-fold increased odds of AD.4 Among pediatric patients with moderate to severe AD, Black children were more likely to be exposed to tobacco smoke17 and traffic-related air pollution.18 Low socioeconomic status and low income also have been associated with moderate16 and severe19 AD. At the same education level, Black individuals in the United States receive less income than their White counterparts and have markedly less wealth at equivalent incomes.20
In utero exposure to maternal stress is associated with AD.4 Increased IgE levels have been recorded in children who develop AD, with Black children having the highest IgE levels overall compared to other children.18
An analysis of medical records from an urban medical center in Baltimore, Maryland, from 2013 through 2018 showed that Black patients with AD were less likely to receive topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, a topical phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor, and a biologic compared to White patients with AD.21
Since the disproportionate burden experienced by patients with AD is not physiologic, it is imperative to address these systemic complexities and address the barriers impacting treatment availability to improve health outcomes for all patients living with AD.
- Kaufman BP, Guttman-Yassky E, Alexis AF. Atopic dermatitis in diverse racial and ethnic groups—variations in epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation and treatment. Exp Dermatol. 2018;27:340-357.
- Lee HH, Patel KR, Singam V, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and phenotype of adult-onset atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019;80:1526-1532.E7.
- Adawi W, Cornman H, Kambala A, et al. Diagnosing atopic dermatitis in skin of color. Dermatol Clin. 2023;41:417-429.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. Current updates in the epidemiology and comorbidities of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:511-520.
- Croce EA, Levy ML, Adamson AS, et al. Reframing racial and ethnic disparities in atopic dermatitis in Black and Latinx populations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1104-1111.
- Kim Y, Blomberg M, Rifas-Shiman SL, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in incidence and persistence of childhood atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2019;139:827-834.
- Nomura T, Wu J, Kabashima K, et al. Endophenotypic variations of atopic dermatitis by age, race, and ethnicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;8:1840-1852.
- McColl M, Boozalis E, Aguh C, et al. Pruritus in Black skin: unique molecular characteristics and clinical features. J Natl Med Assoc. 2021;114:30-38.
- Silverberg JI, Margolis DJ, Boguniewicz M, et al. Distribution of atopic dermatitis lesions in United States adults. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33:1341-1348.
- Summey BT, Bowen SE, Allen HB. Lichen planus-like atopic dermatitis: expanding the differential diagnosis of spongiotic dermatitis. J Cutan Pathol. 2008;35:311-314.
- Odhiambo JA, Williams HC, Clayton TO, et al; ISAAC Phase Three Study Group. Global variations in prevalence of eczema symptoms in children from ISAAC Phase Three. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:1251-1258.E23.
- Gallagher K, Halperin-Goldstein S, Paller AS. New treatments in atopic dermatitis update. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:498-510.E10.
- Shaw ML. FDA expands roflumilast use for atopic dermatitis to children aged 2 to 5 years. Am J Managed Care. October 6, 2025. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.ajmc.com/view/fda-expands -roflumilast-use-for-atopic-dermatitis-to-children-aged-2-to-5-years
- Eichenfield LF, Stein Gold LF, Simpson EL, et al. Efficacy and safety of ruxolitinib cream in children aged 2 to 11 years with atopic dermatitis: results from TRuE-AD3, a phase 3, randomized double-blind study. J Am Acad of Dermatol. 2025;93:689-698.
- Heath CR, Dosono B, Shi VY, et al. Variability in skin tone changes by race and ethnicity among US adults with atopic dermatitis. Presented at: Skin of Color Update 2024, September 13-15, 2024, New York, NY.
- Tackett KJ, Jenkins F, Morrell DS, et al. Structural racism and its influence on the severity of atopic dermatitis in African American children. Pediatr Dermatol. 2020;37:142-146.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. The role of environmental exposures in atopic dermatitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020;20:74.
- Bauer SJ, Spoer BR, Ehrman R, et al. A systematic review of historic neighborhood redlining and contemporary health outcomes. Public Health. 2025;238:181-187.
- Chung J, Simpson EL. The socioeconomics of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2019;122:360-366.
- Martinez A, de la Rosa R, Mujahid M, et al. Structural racism and its pathways to asthma and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1112-1120.
- Bell MA, Whang KA, Thomas J, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in access to emerging and frontline therapies in common dermatological conditions: a cross-sectional study. J Natl Med Assoc. 2020;112:650-653.
- Kaufman BP, Guttman-Yassky E, Alexis AF. Atopic dermatitis in diverse racial and ethnic groups—variations in epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation and treatment. Exp Dermatol. 2018;27:340-357.
- Lee HH, Patel KR, Singam V, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and phenotype of adult-onset atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019;80:1526-1532.E7.
- Adawi W, Cornman H, Kambala A, et al. Diagnosing atopic dermatitis in skin of color. Dermatol Clin. 2023;41:417-429.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. Current updates in the epidemiology and comorbidities of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:511-520.
- Croce EA, Levy ML, Adamson AS, et al. Reframing racial and ethnic disparities in atopic dermatitis in Black and Latinx populations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1104-1111.
- Kim Y, Blomberg M, Rifas-Shiman SL, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in incidence and persistence of childhood atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2019;139:827-834.
- Nomura T, Wu J, Kabashima K, et al. Endophenotypic variations of atopic dermatitis by age, race, and ethnicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;8:1840-1852.
- McColl M, Boozalis E, Aguh C, et al. Pruritus in Black skin: unique molecular characteristics and clinical features. J Natl Med Assoc. 2021;114:30-38.
- Silverberg JI, Margolis DJ, Boguniewicz M, et al. Distribution of atopic dermatitis lesions in United States adults. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33:1341-1348.
- Summey BT, Bowen SE, Allen HB. Lichen planus-like atopic dermatitis: expanding the differential diagnosis of spongiotic dermatitis. J Cutan Pathol. 2008;35:311-314.
- Odhiambo JA, Williams HC, Clayton TO, et al; ISAAC Phase Three Study Group. Global variations in prevalence of eczema symptoms in children from ISAAC Phase Three. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:1251-1258.E23.
- Gallagher K, Halperin-Goldstein S, Paller AS. New treatments in atopic dermatitis update. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2025;135:498-510.E10.
- Shaw ML. FDA expands roflumilast use for atopic dermatitis to children aged 2 to 5 years. Am J Managed Care. October 6, 2025. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.ajmc.com/view/fda-expands -roflumilast-use-for-atopic-dermatitis-to-children-aged-2-to-5-years
- Eichenfield LF, Stein Gold LF, Simpson EL, et al. Efficacy and safety of ruxolitinib cream in children aged 2 to 11 years with atopic dermatitis: results from TRuE-AD3, a phase 3, randomized double-blind study. J Am Acad of Dermatol. 2025;93:689-698.
- Heath CR, Dosono B, Shi VY, et al. Variability in skin tone changes by race and ethnicity among US adults with atopic dermatitis. Presented at: Skin of Color Update 2024, September 13-15, 2024, New York, NY.
- Tackett KJ, Jenkins F, Morrell DS, et al. Structural racism and its influence on the severity of atopic dermatitis in African American children. Pediatr Dermatol. 2020;37:142-146.
- Narla S, Silverberg JI. The role of environmental exposures in atopic dermatitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020;20:74.
- Bauer SJ, Spoer BR, Ehrman R, et al. A systematic review of historic neighborhood redlining and contemporary health outcomes. Public Health. 2025;238:181-187.
- Chung J, Simpson EL. The socioeconomics of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2019;122:360-366.
- Martinez A, de la Rosa R, Mujahid M, et al. Structural racism and its pathways to asthma and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;148:1112-1120.
- Bell MA, Whang KA, Thomas J, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in access to emerging and frontline therapies in common dermatological conditions: a cross-sectional study. J Natl Med Assoc. 2020;112:650-653.
Atopic Dermatitis: New Insights and Expanded Treatment Options
Atopic Dermatitis: New Insights and Expanded Treatment Options
