Margaret Corrigan Humphries, RN, BSN

A 6-year-old girl was brought to a pediatric emergency department (ED) in Atlanta by her mother. The mother stated that during the previous hour, she had noticed that her daughter’s face seemed weaker on the right side.

The night before, the child had said, “I can’t blink my eye”; when her mother asked her to demonstrate, the child seemed to be able to blink both eyes appropriately, and she had no further complaints. The next morning, the child complained of the light being too bright and asked to wear her mother’s sunglasses. In the course of the day, she continued to complain of eye discomfort, which she described as “stinging” and “sore.” The mother could see nothing abnormal, but by late afternoon noticed that her daughter’s smile and facial movements were asymmetrical. She immediately took her to the pediatric ED.

The child had no significant medical history and no surgical history. Her vaccination schedule was current, and she denied any recent illnesses. The mother could recall no exposures to infections or tick bites, no rashes, and no trauma to the face or head. The mother and child were visiting Atlanta from northeastern Florida.

The review of systems was negative for headache, fever, chills, rash, earache, sore throat, cough, rhinorrhea, vision changes, weight loss, or change in appetite or disposition. The child was afebrile, and the other vital signs were within normal limits. 

Physical examination revealed an alert child who was calm and conversant. Her height was 45” and weight, 43 lb. Otoscopic exam showed normal ears and tympanic membranes with no sign of otitis media or ear pathology. No throat redness, tonsillar enlargement, or lymphadenopathies were noted. Breath sounds were clear, and heart rhythm and rate were regular without murmur. 

The patient’s left eye appeared normal, and the right eye was mildly erythematic without drainage or swelling; since corneal abrasion was not suspected, a slit lamp examination was not performed. Upon neurologic examination, right eye ptosis with incomplete lid closure, asymmetrical mouth movement with smile, and a diminished nasal labial fold crease were noted on the right side. When the child was asked to raise her eyebrows and wrinkle her forehead, asymmetrical forehead creases were apparent. All other cranial nerve functions were intact, and motor and sensory responses, including gait and reflexes, were assessed as normal. Unilateral dysfunction of right-sided cranial nerve VII (CN VII), including forehead involvement, was confirmed, consistent with a grade of III to IV on the House-Brackmann (maximum, VI)^1,2 facial nerve grading scale.

Based on the rapid onset of unilateral facial nerve paresis (FNP) and an otherwise normal exam, the patient was diagnosed with Bell’s palsy. No further testing was done, and the child was given a dose of oral prednisolone 40 mg in the ED, with a prescription for four more days of oral prednisolone at 15 mg bid. The need for eye protection and lubrication was emphasized to the mother, who was given lubricating eye drops to administer. The mother was also instructed to follow up with the child’s primary care practitioner upon their return to Florida. 

The child was seen by her pediatrician three days later. Her facial paresis had not worsened in the interim, and the pediatrician declined to extend the course of corticosteroids or to add an antiviral medication. At the mother’s request, the child was referred to a pediatric otolaryngologist, who saw her the following day and adjusted the treatment plan. The child was prescribed prednisolone elixir 20 mg bid for one week, followed by a tapering dose for the second week. In addition, she was prescribed oral acyclovir 400 mg qid for 10 days. Her mother was instructed to return with the child in one week for audiometry testing.  

Discussion
Idiopathic FNP, commonly referred to as Bell’s palsy, is defined as an acute unilateral paresis of the facial nerve without detectable underlying cause.^3,4 It most commonly occurs among persons ages 15 to 45, with a prevalence rate of 15 to 30 cases per 100,000 persons. The peak incidence of Bell’s palsy is in the fourth decade of life. Diabetic patients and pregnant women are disproportionately affected by idiopathic FNP.^2,5 About 8% to 10% of patients will experience a recurrence of Bell’s palsy within 10 years.^2,6

Pediatric FNP can be congenital or acquired. Congenital FNP is most often associated with birth trauma and occurs at a rate of 2.1 cases per 1,000 births. Rare genetic syndromes can also manifest with FNP and will most often present with other syndromic anomalies noted at birth.⁷

Acquired FNP is two to four times less common in children than adults, with an estimated prevalence of 2.7 per 100,000 patients younger than 10. Children account for only a small proportion of subjects in published studies that address diagnosis and management of FNP.³ While the presentation of FNP is much the same in adults and children, some notable differences in etiology exist.^2,3,7-9 Infectious, traumatic, or neoplastic causes of FNP are more common among children than adults and must be distinguished from idiopathic FNP.^7,9-11

Decisions regarding diagnostic testing, pharmacologic treatment, and referral must be guided by the history and physical exam, neurologic exam, and clinical judgment. Being able to identify or exclude alarming causes of FNP, such as neoplasm, will aid the primary care practitioner in treatment and referral practices for this condition.

Pathophysiology
CN VII, the facial nerve, has a broad scope of function that incorporates both sensory and motor pathways. The brachial nerve portion of CN VII controls the muscles of voluntary facial expression. CN VII also autonomically innervates the lacrimal gland and submandibular gland and governs sensation from part of the ear as well as taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.⁴

The precise pathophysiology involved in FNP remains an area of continuing debate, but infectious, vascular, immunologic, and genetic causes have been hypothesized.^7,12 Inflammation and subsequent nerve damage along CN VII caused by an infectious process is thought to be the most likely explanation for the pathogenesis of acquired FNP in both adults and children.^5,13

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) has been suggested as the virus most commonly linked to FNP in both adults and children, but it is unlikely to be the sole cause.^5,6,9 Data from a three-year prospective study of FNP cases in children support a relationship between pediatric FNP and HSV-1 infection.¹⁴ Other infectious causes implicated in pediatric FNP are Lyme disease, Epstein-Barr, varicella zoster virus, rubella, coxsackie virus, adenovirus, and otitis media.^4,7,9

Presentation, History, and Physical Exam
Most children with idiopathic FNP will present with sudden-onset facial asymmetry and may have decreased tearing, loss of the conjunctival reflex (leading to difficulty closing the eye), an inability to hold the lips tightly together, and difficulty keeping food in the mouth. Complaints of otalgia, speech disturbances, hyperacusis, and altered sense of taste are common.^2,7 Recent occurrence of an upper respiratory infection is often reported in the history of a pediatric patient with FNP.^3,7,15,16

Idiopathic FNP is essentially a diagnosis of exclusion.^3,5 A meticulous history must be conducted, including any recent illnesses, trauma to the face or head, vaccines, rashes, and travel. Assessment of the head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat, and a careful neurologic history must be conducted to identify nonidiopathic causes of FNP (see Table 1^5-7,9). Facial weakness can progress from mild palsy to complete paralysis over one to two weeks⁵; therefore, a careful history of the progression of facial weakness should be ascertained and documented.^5,17 

A full neurologic exam is essential. Cranial nerves I through XII should be evaluated; any malfunction of a cranial nerve other than CN VII could be indicative of a tumor or process other than idiopathic FNP. Assessment of facial nerve function is imperative, as this factor is the most important for predicting recovery; it can also aid in formulating a prognosis and directing treatment.^5,9,17

The House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system^1,2 is considered the gold standard for grading severity of facial paresis⁹ (see Table 2^1,2 ). A clear distinction between paresis (partial or incomplete palsy) and paralysis (complete palsy) must be made. Pediatric patients with an incomplete palsy have an improved chance of full recovery.^17,18

Any abnormalities in the peripheral neurologic exam should prompt further testing. FNP not involving the forehead musculature, gradual progression of paresis, and weakness in any extremity could be indicative of a central lesion. FNP has been the presenting symptom in various neoplastic processes, including leukemia, cholesteatoma, and astrocytoma.^3,7,9

Otitis media is a frequent cause of FNP among children.^9-11 Thus, a thorough examination of the ear canal, tympanic membrane, and hearing should be performed. The throat and oropharynx should be inspected, and the parotid gland palpated. Any swelling or abnormalities warrant further investigation.

Lyme disease presenting with FNP is more common in children than adults. This may be related to the increased likelihood for children to be bitten by ticks in the head and neck areas. Frequently, FNP associated with Lyme disease is bilateral—as often as 25% of the time.¹⁹ Headache, onset of symptoms during peak Lyme season, or bilateral FNP should raise the clinician’s suspicion for Lyme disease.^7,9,19

An accurate assessment of blood pressure is essential, as severe hypertension may be implicated in FNP in children.^3,5,7 One literature review reported that hypertension was the origin of FNP in 3% to 17% of affected children.²⁰ Vascular hemorrhage induced by hypertension is thought to cause nerve compression and subsequent FNP.⁷

A bilateral eye exam is also important. Irritation is likely, and the patient with any suspected corneal abrasion or damage should be referred to an ophthalmologist.^6,18

Laboratory Testing and Imaging
Diagnostic testing that facilitates the exclusion of known causes of FNP should be considered, as there is no specific laboratory test to confirm the diagnosis. A complete blood count, Lyme titers, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, CT, and/or MRI may be warranted, based on the clinical presentation.^7-9 In children in whom Lyme disease is suspected (ie, those living in tick-endemic areas or with recent tick bites), serologic testing should be performed. Lumbar puncture and an evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid may be necessary in cases in which meningitis cannot be excluded.^7,9

Specialized diagnostic tests are not routinely recommended for patients with paresis that is improving. Audiometry and evaluation of the stapedial reflex may help guide treatment decisions for patients whose condition is not improving. In children, the presence or return of the stapedial reflex within three weeks of disease onset is predictive of complete recovery.⁵ In patients who experience complete paralysis or unimproved paresis, results of electrodiagnostic testing (in particular, evoked facial nerve electroneuronography) can help forecast recovery of facial nerve function.^5,17

Treatment and Management
Treatment for FNP in adults is controversial, and even more so for the pediatric patient. Treatment decisions consist of eye care, corticosteroids, antiviral medications, and appropriate referrals.

Eye care. Eye lubrication and protection should be implemented immediately. Protecting the cornea is paramount; thorough lubrication of the eye is the mainstay of treatment.¹⁸ Artificial tears should be used frequently during the day, and an ointment should be applied to the eye at night. Use of eye patches is controversial, as they may actually cause corneal injury.^7,9 Taping the eye shut at night may prevent trauma during sleep, but this option must be considered carefully.^9,18

Corticosteroids. Early initiation of corticosteroids should be considered for all patients with FNP, including children.^2,7,9,17 Studies are inconclusive as to whether steroid therapy is beneficial in children with idiopathic FNP. However, two 2010 reviews of pediatric FNP recommend early initiation of steroids for children with acute-onset FNP, particularly when facial paresis is evaluated at a House-Brackmann grade V or VI.^7,9 The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) recommends a tapering course of prednisone for all patients, begun as soon as possible.⁶ The prednisone dosage for pediatric patients is usually 1.0 mg/kg/d, split into two doses, for six days, followed by a tapering dose for four days.⁵

Antivirals and antibiotic therapy. When an infectious cause of FNP is known, appropriate antibiotic or antiviral therapy should begin. If the patient lives in or has traveled to an area endemic for Lyme disease, empiric treatment may be appropriate. When Ramsay Hunt syndrome is diagnosed or herpetic lesions are visible, antiviral treatment should be initiated.⁷

Antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP is the most controversial of the treatment decisions. In 2001, the American Academy of Neurology concluded that no clear benefit from acyclovir could be ascertained, although it might be effective.¹³ This was affirmed in a recently updated Cochrane review of antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP.¹² Antiviral therapy alone showed no benefit, compared with placebo; however, combined antiviral and corticosteroid therapy was more effective than placebo alone in recovery outcomes. Antivirals may benefit pediatric patients and should be considered early when the cause of FNP is viral or idiopathic.^7,9

Referrals. Initial presentation and course of paresis should guide referral patterns for the pediatric patient presenting with FNP. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends referral to an otolaryngologist for any infant or child with FNP.²¹ The AAFP recommends referral to a specialist for any patient who does not show improvement within two weeks.⁶

In patients with complete paralysis, early surgical intervention may be considered, and referral should be made promptly for electrodiagnostic testing and surgical consult. In cases in which otitis media causes FNP, myringotomy and tube insertion are indicated, and appropriate referral should be made.^7,9

Outcomes
|The prognosis in children with FNP is good, and most will recover completely.^2,9-11,22 Idiopathic and infectious etiologies of FNP seem to have the greatest likelihood for complete recovery.^10,11,16,17 Recovery appears to be affected by etiology, degree of paresis, and treatment. How these factors coalesce is not fully understood, and up to 20% of children may have mild to moderate residual facial nerve dysfunction.^10,11,19,22

The Case Patient
The child’s facial nerve function gradually returned over a three-week period, with no residual deficit (see Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c). Results of the audiometry screening on day 10 were normal, showing a positive stapedial reflex. An MRI, performed four months after the initial paralysis to rule out any tumors, yielded normal results. 

This case highlights the differing management of pediatric Bell’s palsy among emergency, pediatric, and specialized providers. This child was managed more aggressively under the care of an otolaryngologist with a two-week course of steroids, antiviral medication for 10 days, and a follow-up MRI to rule out any evidence of a tumor. The need for further research to guide practice in the pediatric patient with Bell’s palsy is apparent.

Conclusion
FNP in the pediatric population is rare and more likely to have an identifiable cause than among adults. Careful examination should reveal differential diagnoses that warrant treatment and referrals. The main causes of FNP that should not be missed are otitis media, hypertension, varicella zoster virus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome), neoplastic processes, and Lyme disease.

Practitioners should have a high index of suspicion for nonidiopathic causes of FNP when a child has a neurologic exam that includes facial paresis of gradual onset, abnormal function of other cranial nerves, lack of forehead muscle weakness, or peripheral abnormalities. In addition to the history and exam, blood work and radiologic imaging can aid the practitioner in ruling in or out nonidiopathic causes of FNP. 

Grading of facial palsy severity using the House-Brackmann scale helps guide prognosis and referral choices. Referral to a specialist in otolaryngology is appropriate and recommended by the AAP. Referral should be made to an ophthalmologist if any suspicion of corneal abrasion exists. 

Treatment in children should consist of eye care and steroids. Antiviral therapy should be considered on an individualized basis and when evidence of HSV or varicella exists. Parents should be advised about the importance of eye care in a child with FNP (see Table 3^{5-7,9,17,18,22}).

The emotional stress associated with FNP can be significant for both children and adults; fear of lifelong facial deformity can be psychologically debilitating. Yet a favorable prognosis for recovery of facial nerve function can be relayed to anxious parents.

A 6-year-old girl was brought to a pediatric emergency department (ED) in Atlanta by her mother. The mother stated that during the previous hour, she had noticed that her daughter’s face seemed weaker on the right side.

The night before, the child had said, “I can’t blink my eye”; when her mother asked her to demonstrate, the child seemed to be able to blink both eyes appropriately, and she had no further complaints. The next morning, the child complained of the light being too bright and asked to wear her mother’s sunglasses. In the course of the day, she continued to complain of eye discomfort, which she described as “stinging” and “sore.” The mother could see nothing abnormal, but by late afternoon noticed that her daughter’s smile and facial movements were asymmetrical. She immediately took her to the pediatric ED.

The child had no significant medical history and no surgical history. Her vaccination schedule was current, and she denied any recent illnesses. The mother could recall no exposures to infections or tick bites, no rashes, and no trauma to the face or head. The mother and child were visiting Atlanta from northeastern Florida.

The review of systems was negative for headache, fever, chills, rash, earache, sore throat, cough, rhinorrhea, vision changes, weight loss, or change in appetite or disposition. The child was afebrile, and the other vital signs were within normal limits. 

Physical examination revealed an alert child who was calm and conversant. Her height was 45” and weight, 43 lb. Otoscopic exam showed normal ears and tympanic membranes with no sign of otitis media or ear pathology. No throat redness, tonsillar enlargement, or lymphadenopathies were noted. Breath sounds were clear, and heart rhythm and rate were regular without murmur. 

The patient’s left eye appeared normal, and the right eye was mildly erythematic without drainage or swelling; since corneal abrasion was not suspected, a slit lamp examination was not performed. Upon neurologic examination, right eye ptosis with incomplete lid closure, asymmetrical mouth movement with smile, and a diminished nasal labial fold crease were noted on the right side. When the child was asked to raise her eyebrows and wrinkle her forehead, asymmetrical forehead creases were apparent. All other cranial nerve functions were intact, and motor and sensory responses, including gait and reflexes, were assessed as normal. Unilateral dysfunction of right-sided cranial nerve VII (CN VII), including forehead involvement, was confirmed, consistent with a grade of III to IV on the House-Brackmann (maximum, VI)^1,2 facial nerve grading scale.

Based on the rapid onset of unilateral facial nerve paresis (FNP) and an otherwise normal exam, the patient was diagnosed with Bell’s palsy. No further testing was done, and the child was given a dose of oral prednisolone 40 mg in the ED, with a prescription for four more days of oral prednisolone at 15 mg bid. The need for eye protection and lubrication was emphasized to the mother, who was given lubricating eye drops to administer. The mother was also instructed to follow up with the child’s primary care practitioner upon their return to Florida. 

The child was seen by her pediatrician three days later. Her facial paresis had not worsened in the interim, and the pediatrician declined to extend the course of corticosteroids or to add an antiviral medication. At the mother’s request, the child was referred to a pediatric otolaryngologist, who saw her the following day and adjusted the treatment plan. The child was prescribed prednisolone elixir 20 mg bid for one week, followed by a tapering dose for the second week. In addition, she was prescribed oral acyclovir 400 mg qid for 10 days. Her mother was instructed to return with the child in one week for audiometry testing.  

Discussion
Idiopathic FNP, commonly referred to as Bell’s palsy, is defined as an acute unilateral paresis of the facial nerve without detectable underlying cause.^3,4 It most commonly occurs among persons ages 15 to 45, with a prevalence rate of 15 to 30 cases per 100,000 persons. The peak incidence of Bell’s palsy is in the fourth decade of life. Diabetic patients and pregnant women are disproportionately affected by idiopathic FNP.^2,5 About 8% to 10% of patients will experience a recurrence of Bell’s palsy within 10 years.^2,6

Pediatric FNP can be congenital or acquired. Congenital FNP is most often associated with birth trauma and occurs at a rate of 2.1 cases per 1,000 births. Rare genetic syndromes can also manifest with FNP and will most often present with other syndromic anomalies noted at birth.⁷

Acquired FNP is two to four times less common in children than adults, with an estimated prevalence of 2.7 per 100,000 patients younger than 10. Children account for only a small proportion of subjects in published studies that address diagnosis and management of FNP.³ While the presentation of FNP is much the same in adults and children, some notable differences in etiology exist.^2,3,7-9 Infectious, traumatic, or neoplastic causes of FNP are more common among children than adults and must be distinguished from idiopathic FNP.^7,9-11

Decisions regarding diagnostic testing, pharmacologic treatment, and referral must be guided by the history and physical exam, neurologic exam, and clinical judgment. Being able to identify or exclude alarming causes of FNP, such as neoplasm, will aid the primary care practitioner in treatment and referral practices for this condition.

Pathophysiology
CN VII, the facial nerve, has a broad scope of function that incorporates both sensory and motor pathways. The brachial nerve portion of CN VII controls the muscles of voluntary facial expression. CN VII also autonomically innervates the lacrimal gland and submandibular gland and governs sensation from part of the ear as well as taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.⁴

The precise pathophysiology involved in FNP remains an area of continuing debate, but infectious, vascular, immunologic, and genetic causes have been hypothesized.^7,12 Inflammation and subsequent nerve damage along CN VII caused by an infectious process is thought to be the most likely explanation for the pathogenesis of acquired FNP in both adults and children.^5,13

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) has been suggested as the virus most commonly linked to FNP in both adults and children, but it is unlikely to be the sole cause.^5,6,9 Data from a three-year prospective study of FNP cases in children support a relationship between pediatric FNP and HSV-1 infection.¹⁴ Other infectious causes implicated in pediatric FNP are Lyme disease, Epstein-Barr, varicella zoster virus, rubella, coxsackie virus, adenovirus, and otitis media.^4,7,9

Presentation, History, and Physical Exam
Most children with idiopathic FNP will present with sudden-onset facial asymmetry and may have decreased tearing, loss of the conjunctival reflex (leading to difficulty closing the eye), an inability to hold the lips tightly together, and difficulty keeping food in the mouth. Complaints of otalgia, speech disturbances, hyperacusis, and altered sense of taste are common.^2,7 Recent occurrence of an upper respiratory infection is often reported in the history of a pediatric patient with FNP.^3,7,15,16

Idiopathic FNP is essentially a diagnosis of exclusion.^3,5 A meticulous history must be conducted, including any recent illnesses, trauma to the face or head, vaccines, rashes, and travel. Assessment of the head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat, and a careful neurologic history must be conducted to identify nonidiopathic causes of FNP (see Table 1^5-7,9). Facial weakness can progress from mild palsy to complete paralysis over one to two weeks⁵; therefore, a careful history of the progression of facial weakness should be ascertained and documented.^5,17 

A full neurologic exam is essential. Cranial nerves I through XII should be evaluated; any malfunction of a cranial nerve other than CN VII could be indicative of a tumor or process other than idiopathic FNP. Assessment of facial nerve function is imperative, as this factor is the most important for predicting recovery; it can also aid in formulating a prognosis and directing treatment.^5,9,17

The House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system^1,2 is considered the gold standard for grading severity of facial paresis⁹ (see Table 2^1,2 ). A clear distinction between paresis (partial or incomplete palsy) and paralysis (complete palsy) must be made. Pediatric patients with an incomplete palsy have an improved chance of full recovery.^17,18

Any abnormalities in the peripheral neurologic exam should prompt further testing. FNP not involving the forehead musculature, gradual progression of paresis, and weakness in any extremity could be indicative of a central lesion. FNP has been the presenting symptom in various neoplastic processes, including leukemia, cholesteatoma, and astrocytoma.^3,7,9

Otitis media is a frequent cause of FNP among children.^9-11 Thus, a thorough examination of the ear canal, tympanic membrane, and hearing should be performed. The throat and oropharynx should be inspected, and the parotid gland palpated. Any swelling or abnormalities warrant further investigation.

Lyme disease presenting with FNP is more common in children than adults. This may be related to the increased likelihood for children to be bitten by ticks in the head and neck areas. Frequently, FNP associated with Lyme disease is bilateral—as often as 25% of the time.¹⁹ Headache, onset of symptoms during peak Lyme season, or bilateral FNP should raise the clinician’s suspicion for Lyme disease.^7,9,19

An accurate assessment of blood pressure is essential, as severe hypertension may be implicated in FNP in children.^3,5,7 One literature review reported that hypertension was the origin of FNP in 3% to 17% of affected children.²⁰ Vascular hemorrhage induced by hypertension is thought to cause nerve compression and subsequent FNP.⁷

A bilateral eye exam is also important. Irritation is likely, and the patient with any suspected corneal abrasion or damage should be referred to an ophthalmologist.^6,18

Laboratory Testing and Imaging
Diagnostic testing that facilitates the exclusion of known causes of FNP should be considered, as there is no specific laboratory test to confirm the diagnosis. A complete blood count, Lyme titers, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, CT, and/or MRI may be warranted, based on the clinical presentation.^7-9 In children in whom Lyme disease is suspected (ie, those living in tick-endemic areas or with recent tick bites), serologic testing should be performed. Lumbar puncture and an evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid may be necessary in cases in which meningitis cannot be excluded.^7,9

Specialized diagnostic tests are not routinely recommended for patients with paresis that is improving. Audiometry and evaluation of the stapedial reflex may help guide treatment decisions for patients whose condition is not improving. In children, the presence or return of the stapedial reflex within three weeks of disease onset is predictive of complete recovery.⁵ In patients who experience complete paralysis or unimproved paresis, results of electrodiagnostic testing (in particular, evoked facial nerve electroneuronography) can help forecast recovery of facial nerve function.^5,17

Treatment and Management
Treatment for FNP in adults is controversial, and even more so for the pediatric patient. Treatment decisions consist of eye care, corticosteroids, antiviral medications, and appropriate referrals.

Eye care. Eye lubrication and protection should be implemented immediately. Protecting the cornea is paramount; thorough lubrication of the eye is the mainstay of treatment.¹⁸ Artificial tears should be used frequently during the day, and an ointment should be applied to the eye at night. Use of eye patches is controversial, as they may actually cause corneal injury.^7,9 Taping the eye shut at night may prevent trauma during sleep, but this option must be considered carefully.^9,18

Corticosteroids. Early initiation of corticosteroids should be considered for all patients with FNP, including children.^2,7,9,17 Studies are inconclusive as to whether steroid therapy is beneficial in children with idiopathic FNP. However, two 2010 reviews of pediatric FNP recommend early initiation of steroids for children with acute-onset FNP, particularly when facial paresis is evaluated at a House-Brackmann grade V or VI.^7,9 The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) recommends a tapering course of prednisone for all patients, begun as soon as possible.⁶ The prednisone dosage for pediatric patients is usually 1.0 mg/kg/d, split into two doses, for six days, followed by a tapering dose for four days.⁵

Antivirals and antibiotic therapy. When an infectious cause of FNP is known, appropriate antibiotic or antiviral therapy should begin. If the patient lives in or has traveled to an area endemic for Lyme disease, empiric treatment may be appropriate. When Ramsay Hunt syndrome is diagnosed or herpetic lesions are visible, antiviral treatment should be initiated.⁷

Antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP is the most controversial of the treatment decisions. In 2001, the American Academy of Neurology concluded that no clear benefit from acyclovir could be ascertained, although it might be effective.¹³ This was affirmed in a recently updated Cochrane review of antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP.¹² Antiviral therapy alone showed no benefit, compared with placebo; however, combined antiviral and corticosteroid therapy was more effective than placebo alone in recovery outcomes. Antivirals may benefit pediatric patients and should be considered early when the cause of FNP is viral or idiopathic.^7,9

Referrals. Initial presentation and course of paresis should guide referral patterns for the pediatric patient presenting with FNP. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends referral to an otolaryngologist for any infant or child with FNP.²¹ The AAFP recommends referral to a specialist for any patient who does not show improvement within two weeks.⁶

In patients with complete paralysis, early surgical intervention may be considered, and referral should be made promptly for electrodiagnostic testing and surgical consult. In cases in which otitis media causes FNP, myringotomy and tube insertion are indicated, and appropriate referral should be made.^7,9

Outcomes
|The prognosis in children with FNP is good, and most will recover completely.^2,9-11,22 Idiopathic and infectious etiologies of FNP seem to have the greatest likelihood for complete recovery.^10,11,16,17 Recovery appears to be affected by etiology, degree of paresis, and treatment. How these factors coalesce is not fully understood, and up to 20% of children may have mild to moderate residual facial nerve dysfunction.^10,11,19,22

The Case Patient
The child’s facial nerve function gradually returned over a three-week period, with no residual deficit (see Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c). Results of the audiometry screening on day 10 were normal, showing a positive stapedial reflex. An MRI, performed four months after the initial paralysis to rule out any tumors, yielded normal results. 

This case highlights the differing management of pediatric Bell’s palsy among emergency, pediatric, and specialized providers. This child was managed more aggressively under the care of an otolaryngologist with a two-week course of steroids, antiviral medication for 10 days, and a follow-up MRI to rule out any evidence of a tumor. The need for further research to guide practice in the pediatric patient with Bell’s palsy is apparent.

Conclusion
FNP in the pediatric population is rare and more likely to have an identifiable cause than among adults. Careful examination should reveal differential diagnoses that warrant treatment and referrals. The main causes of FNP that should not be missed are otitis media, hypertension, varicella zoster virus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome), neoplastic processes, and Lyme disease.

Practitioners should have a high index of suspicion for nonidiopathic causes of FNP when a child has a neurologic exam that includes facial paresis of gradual onset, abnormal function of other cranial nerves, lack of forehead muscle weakness, or peripheral abnormalities. In addition to the history and exam, blood work and radiologic imaging can aid the practitioner in ruling in or out nonidiopathic causes of FNP. 

Grading of facial palsy severity using the House-Brackmann scale helps guide prognosis and referral choices. Referral to a specialist in otolaryngology is appropriate and recommended by the AAP. Referral should be made to an ophthalmologist if any suspicion of corneal abrasion exists. 

Treatment in children should consist of eye care and steroids. Antiviral therapy should be considered on an individualized basis and when evidence of HSV or varicella exists. Parents should be advised about the importance of eye care in a child with FNP (see Table 3^{5-7,9,17,18,22}).

The emotional stress associated with FNP can be significant for both children and adults; fear of lifelong facial deformity can be psychologically debilitating. Yet a favorable prognosis for recovery of facial nerve function can be relayed to anxious parents.

A 6-year-old girl was brought to a pediatric emergency department (ED) in Atlanta by her mother. The mother stated that during the previous hour, she had noticed that her daughter’s face seemed weaker on the right side.

The night before, the child had said, “I can’t blink my eye”; when her mother asked her to demonstrate, the child seemed to be able to blink both eyes appropriately, and she had no further complaints. The next morning, the child complained of the light being too bright and asked to wear her mother’s sunglasses. In the course of the day, she continued to complain of eye discomfort, which she described as “stinging” and “sore.” The mother could see nothing abnormal, but by late afternoon noticed that her daughter’s smile and facial movements were asymmetrical. She immediately took her to the pediatric ED.

The child had no significant medical history and no surgical history. Her vaccination schedule was current, and she denied any recent illnesses. The mother could recall no exposures to infections or tick bites, no rashes, and no trauma to the face or head. The mother and child were visiting Atlanta from northeastern Florida.

The review of systems was negative for headache, fever, chills, rash, earache, sore throat, cough, rhinorrhea, vision changes, weight loss, or change in appetite or disposition. The child was afebrile, and the other vital signs were within normal limits. 

Physical examination revealed an alert child who was calm and conversant. Her height was 45” and weight, 43 lb. Otoscopic exam showed normal ears and tympanic membranes with no sign of otitis media or ear pathology. No throat redness, tonsillar enlargement, or lymphadenopathies were noted. Breath sounds were clear, and heart rhythm and rate were regular without murmur. 

The patient’s left eye appeared normal, and the right eye was mildly erythematic without drainage or swelling; since corneal abrasion was not suspected, a slit lamp examination was not performed. Upon neurologic examination, right eye ptosis with incomplete lid closure, asymmetrical mouth movement with smile, and a diminished nasal labial fold crease were noted on the right side. When the child was asked to raise her eyebrows and wrinkle her forehead, asymmetrical forehead creases were apparent. All other cranial nerve functions were intact, and motor and sensory responses, including gait and reflexes, were assessed as normal. Unilateral dysfunction of right-sided cranial nerve VII (CN VII), including forehead involvement, was confirmed, consistent with a grade of III to IV on the House-Brackmann (maximum, VI)^1,2 facial nerve grading scale.

Based on the rapid onset of unilateral facial nerve paresis (FNP) and an otherwise normal exam, the patient was diagnosed with Bell’s palsy. No further testing was done, and the child was given a dose of oral prednisolone 40 mg in the ED, with a prescription for four more days of oral prednisolone at 15 mg bid. The need for eye protection and lubrication was emphasized to the mother, who was given lubricating eye drops to administer. The mother was also instructed to follow up with the child’s primary care practitioner upon their return to Florida. 

The child was seen by her pediatrician three days later. Her facial paresis had not worsened in the interim, and the pediatrician declined to extend the course of corticosteroids or to add an antiviral medication. At the mother’s request, the child was referred to a pediatric otolaryngologist, who saw her the following day and adjusted the treatment plan. The child was prescribed prednisolone elixir 20 mg bid for one week, followed by a tapering dose for the second week. In addition, she was prescribed oral acyclovir 400 mg qid for 10 days. Her mother was instructed to return with the child in one week for audiometry testing.  

Discussion
Idiopathic FNP, commonly referred to as Bell’s palsy, is defined as an acute unilateral paresis of the facial nerve without detectable underlying cause.^3,4 It most commonly occurs among persons ages 15 to 45, with a prevalence rate of 15 to 30 cases per 100,000 persons. The peak incidence of Bell’s palsy is in the fourth decade of life. Diabetic patients and pregnant women are disproportionately affected by idiopathic FNP.^2,5 About 8% to 10% of patients will experience a recurrence of Bell’s palsy within 10 years.^2,6

Pediatric FNP can be congenital or acquired. Congenital FNP is most often associated with birth trauma and occurs at a rate of 2.1 cases per 1,000 births. Rare genetic syndromes can also manifest with FNP and will most often present with other syndromic anomalies noted at birth.⁷

Acquired FNP is two to four times less common in children than adults, with an estimated prevalence of 2.7 per 100,000 patients younger than 10. Children account for only a small proportion of subjects in published studies that address diagnosis and management of FNP.³ While the presentation of FNP is much the same in adults and children, some notable differences in etiology exist.^2,3,7-9 Infectious, traumatic, or neoplastic causes of FNP are more common among children than adults and must be distinguished from idiopathic FNP.^7,9-11

Decisions regarding diagnostic testing, pharmacologic treatment, and referral must be guided by the history and physical exam, neurologic exam, and clinical judgment. Being able to identify or exclude alarming causes of FNP, such as neoplasm, will aid the primary care practitioner in treatment and referral practices for this condition.

Pathophysiology
CN VII, the facial nerve, has a broad scope of function that incorporates both sensory and motor pathways. The brachial nerve portion of CN VII controls the muscles of voluntary facial expression. CN VII also autonomically innervates the lacrimal gland and submandibular gland and governs sensation from part of the ear as well as taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.⁴

The precise pathophysiology involved in FNP remains an area of continuing debate, but infectious, vascular, immunologic, and genetic causes have been hypothesized.^7,12 Inflammation and subsequent nerve damage along CN VII caused by an infectious process is thought to be the most likely explanation for the pathogenesis of acquired FNP in both adults and children.^5,13

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) has been suggested as the virus most commonly linked to FNP in both adults and children, but it is unlikely to be the sole cause.^5,6,9 Data from a three-year prospective study of FNP cases in children support a relationship between pediatric FNP and HSV-1 infection.¹⁴ Other infectious causes implicated in pediatric FNP are Lyme disease, Epstein-Barr, varicella zoster virus, rubella, coxsackie virus, adenovirus, and otitis media.^4,7,9

Presentation, History, and Physical Exam
Most children with idiopathic FNP will present with sudden-onset facial asymmetry and may have decreased tearing, loss of the conjunctival reflex (leading to difficulty closing the eye), an inability to hold the lips tightly together, and difficulty keeping food in the mouth. Complaints of otalgia, speech disturbances, hyperacusis, and altered sense of taste are common.^2,7 Recent occurrence of an upper respiratory infection is often reported in the history of a pediatric patient with FNP.^3,7,15,16

Idiopathic FNP is essentially a diagnosis of exclusion.^3,5 A meticulous history must be conducted, including any recent illnesses, trauma to the face or head, vaccines, rashes, and travel. Assessment of the head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat, and a careful neurologic history must be conducted to identify nonidiopathic causes of FNP (see Table 1^5-7,9). Facial weakness can progress from mild palsy to complete paralysis over one to two weeks⁵; therefore, a careful history of the progression of facial weakness should be ascertained and documented.^5,17 

A full neurologic exam is essential. Cranial nerves I through XII should be evaluated; any malfunction of a cranial nerve other than CN VII could be indicative of a tumor or process other than idiopathic FNP. Assessment of facial nerve function is imperative, as this factor is the most important for predicting recovery; it can also aid in formulating a prognosis and directing treatment.^5,9,17

The House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system^1,2 is considered the gold standard for grading severity of facial paresis⁹ (see Table 2^1,2 ). A clear distinction between paresis (partial or incomplete palsy) and paralysis (complete palsy) must be made. Pediatric patients with an incomplete palsy have an improved chance of full recovery.^17,18

Any abnormalities in the peripheral neurologic exam should prompt further testing. FNP not involving the forehead musculature, gradual progression of paresis, and weakness in any extremity could be indicative of a central lesion. FNP has been the presenting symptom in various neoplastic processes, including leukemia, cholesteatoma, and astrocytoma.^3,7,9

Otitis media is a frequent cause of FNP among children.^9-11 Thus, a thorough examination of the ear canal, tympanic membrane, and hearing should be performed. The throat and oropharynx should be inspected, and the parotid gland palpated. Any swelling or abnormalities warrant further investigation.

Lyme disease presenting with FNP is more common in children than adults. This may be related to the increased likelihood for children to be bitten by ticks in the head and neck areas. Frequently, FNP associated with Lyme disease is bilateral—as often as 25% of the time.¹⁹ Headache, onset of symptoms during peak Lyme season, or bilateral FNP should raise the clinician’s suspicion for Lyme disease.^7,9,19

An accurate assessment of blood pressure is essential, as severe hypertension may be implicated in FNP in children.^3,5,7 One literature review reported that hypertension was the origin of FNP in 3% to 17% of affected children.²⁰ Vascular hemorrhage induced by hypertension is thought to cause nerve compression and subsequent FNP.⁷

A bilateral eye exam is also important. Irritation is likely, and the patient with any suspected corneal abrasion or damage should be referred to an ophthalmologist.^6,18

Laboratory Testing and Imaging
Diagnostic testing that facilitates the exclusion of known causes of FNP should be considered, as there is no specific laboratory test to confirm the diagnosis. A complete blood count, Lyme titers, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, CT, and/or MRI may be warranted, based on the clinical presentation.^7-9 In children in whom Lyme disease is suspected (ie, those living in tick-endemic areas or with recent tick bites), serologic testing should be performed. Lumbar puncture and an evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid may be necessary in cases in which meningitis cannot be excluded.^7,9

Specialized diagnostic tests are not routinely recommended for patients with paresis that is improving. Audiometry and evaluation of the stapedial reflex may help guide treatment decisions for patients whose condition is not improving. In children, the presence or return of the stapedial reflex within three weeks of disease onset is predictive of complete recovery.⁵ In patients who experience complete paralysis or unimproved paresis, results of electrodiagnostic testing (in particular, evoked facial nerve electroneuronography) can help forecast recovery of facial nerve function.^5,17

Treatment and Management
Treatment for FNP in adults is controversial, and even more so for the pediatric patient. Treatment decisions consist of eye care, corticosteroids, antiviral medications, and appropriate referrals.

Eye care. Eye lubrication and protection should be implemented immediately. Protecting the cornea is paramount; thorough lubrication of the eye is the mainstay of treatment.¹⁸ Artificial tears should be used frequently during the day, and an ointment should be applied to the eye at night. Use of eye patches is controversial, as they may actually cause corneal injury.^7,9 Taping the eye shut at night may prevent trauma during sleep, but this option must be considered carefully.^9,18

Corticosteroids. Early initiation of corticosteroids should be considered for all patients with FNP, including children.^2,7,9,17 Studies are inconclusive as to whether steroid therapy is beneficial in children with idiopathic FNP. However, two 2010 reviews of pediatric FNP recommend early initiation of steroids for children with acute-onset FNP, particularly when facial paresis is evaluated at a House-Brackmann grade V or VI.^7,9 The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) recommends a tapering course of prednisone for all patients, begun as soon as possible.⁶ The prednisone dosage for pediatric patients is usually 1.0 mg/kg/d, split into two doses, for six days, followed by a tapering dose for four days.⁵

Antivirals and antibiotic therapy. When an infectious cause of FNP is known, appropriate antibiotic or antiviral therapy should begin. If the patient lives in or has traveled to an area endemic for Lyme disease, empiric treatment may be appropriate. When Ramsay Hunt syndrome is diagnosed or herpetic lesions are visible, antiviral treatment should be initiated.⁷

Antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP is the most controversial of the treatment decisions. In 2001, the American Academy of Neurology concluded that no clear benefit from acyclovir could be ascertained, although it might be effective.¹³ This was affirmed in a recently updated Cochrane review of antiviral therapy for idiopathic FNP.¹² Antiviral therapy alone showed no benefit, compared with placebo; however, combined antiviral and corticosteroid therapy was more effective than placebo alone in recovery outcomes. Antivirals may benefit pediatric patients and should be considered early when the cause of FNP is viral or idiopathic.^7,9

Referrals. Initial presentation and course of paresis should guide referral patterns for the pediatric patient presenting with FNP. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends referral to an otolaryngologist for any infant or child with FNP.²¹ The AAFP recommends referral to a specialist for any patient who does not show improvement within two weeks.⁶

In patients with complete paralysis, early surgical intervention may be considered, and referral should be made promptly for electrodiagnostic testing and surgical consult. In cases in which otitis media causes FNP, myringotomy and tube insertion are indicated, and appropriate referral should be made.^7,9

Outcomes
|The prognosis in children with FNP is good, and most will recover completely.^2,9-11,22 Idiopathic and infectious etiologies of FNP seem to have the greatest likelihood for complete recovery.^10,11,16,17 Recovery appears to be affected by etiology, degree of paresis, and treatment. How these factors coalesce is not fully understood, and up to 20% of children may have mild to moderate residual facial nerve dysfunction.^10,11,19,22

The Case Patient
The child’s facial nerve function gradually returned over a three-week period, with no residual deficit (see Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c). Results of the audiometry screening on day 10 were normal, showing a positive stapedial reflex. An MRI, performed four months after the initial paralysis to rule out any tumors, yielded normal results. 

This case highlights the differing management of pediatric Bell’s palsy among emergency, pediatric, and specialized providers. This child was managed more aggressively under the care of an otolaryngologist with a two-week course of steroids, antiviral medication for 10 days, and a follow-up MRI to rule out any evidence of a tumor. The need for further research to guide practice in the pediatric patient with Bell’s palsy is apparent.

Conclusion
FNP in the pediatric population is rare and more likely to have an identifiable cause than among adults. Careful examination should reveal differential diagnoses that warrant treatment and referrals. The main causes of FNP that should not be missed are otitis media, hypertension, varicella zoster virus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome), neoplastic processes, and Lyme disease.

Practitioners should have a high index of suspicion for nonidiopathic causes of FNP when a child has a neurologic exam that includes facial paresis of gradual onset, abnormal function of other cranial nerves, lack of forehead muscle weakness, or peripheral abnormalities. In addition to the history and exam, blood work and radiologic imaging can aid the practitioner in ruling in or out nonidiopathic causes of FNP. 

Grading of facial palsy severity using the House-Brackmann scale helps guide prognosis and referral choices. Referral to a specialist in otolaryngology is appropriate and recommended by the AAP. Referral should be made to an ophthalmologist if any suspicion of corneal abrasion exists. 

Treatment in children should consist of eye care and steroids. Antiviral therapy should be considered on an individualized basis and when evidence of HSV or varicella exists. Parents should be advised about the importance of eye care in a child with FNP (see Table 3^{5-7,9,17,18,22}).

The emotional stress associated with FNP can be significant for both children and adults; fear of lifelong facial deformity can be psychologically debilitating. Yet a favorable prognosis for recovery of facial nerve function can be relayed to anxious parents.